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　　RUNNING WATER ON MARS

　　Photographic evidence suggests that liquid water once existed in great quantity on the surface　of Mars. Two types of flow features are seen: runoff channels and outflow channels. Runoff　channels are found in the southern highlands. These flow features are extensive systems―sometimes hundreds of kilometers in total length―of interconnecting, twisting channels　that seem to merge into larger, wider channels. They bear a strong resemblance to river systems on　Earth, and geologists think that they are dried-up beds of long-gone rivers that once carried　rainfall on Mars from the mountains down into the valleys. Runoff channels on Mars speak of a　time 4 billion years ago (the age of the Martian highlands), when the atmosphere was thicker, the　surface warmer, and liquid water widespread.

　　Outflow channels are probably relics of catastrophic flooding on Mars long ago. They appear　only in equatorial regions and generally do not form extensive interconnected networks. Instead,they are probably the paths taken by huge volumes of water draining from the southern highlands　into the northern plains. The onrushing water arising from these flash floods likely also formed the　odd teardrop-shaped “islands” (resembling the miniature versions seen in the wet sand of our　beaches at low tide) that have been found on the plains close to the ends of the outflow channels.

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　　Judging from the width and depth of the channels, the flow rates must have been truly　enormous―perhaps as much as a hundred times greater than the 105 tons per second carried by　the great Amazon river. Flooding shaped the outflow channels approximately 3 billion years ago,about the same times as the northern volcanic plains formed.

　　Some scientists speculate that Mars may have enjoyed an extended early Period during which　rivers, lakes, and perhaps even oceans adorned its surface. A 2003 Mars Global Surveyor image　shows what mission specialists think may be a delta―a fan-shaped network of channels and　sediments where a river once flowed into a larger body of water, in this case a lake filling a crater in　the southern highlands. Other researchers go even further, suggesting that the data provide　evidence for large open expenses of water on the early Martian surface. A computer-generated　view of the Martian north polar region shows the extent of what may have been an ancient ocean　covering much of the northern lowlands. The Hellas Basin, which measures some 3,000　kilometers across and has a floor that lies nearly 9 kilometers below the basin’s rim, is another　candidate for an ancient Martian sea.

　　These ideas remain controversial. Proponents point to features such as the terraced “beaches”shown in one image, which could conceivably have been left behind as a lake or ocean evaporated　and the shoreline receded. But detractors maintain that the terraces could also have been created　by geological activity, perhaps related to the geologic forces that depressed the Northern　Hemisphere far below the level of the south, in which case they have nothing whatever to do with　Martian water. Furthermore, Mars Global Surveyor data released in 2003 seem to indicate that the　Martian surface contains too few carbonate rock layers―layers containing compounds of carbon　and oxygen―that should have been formed in abundance in an ancient ocean. Their absence　supports the picture of a cold, dry Mars that never experienced the extended mild period required　to form lakes and oceans. However, more recent data imply that at least some parts of the planet　did in fact experience long periods in the past during which liquid water existed on the surface.

　　Aside from some small-scale gullies (channels) found since 2000, which are inconclusive,astronomers have no direct evidence for liquid water anywhere on the surface of Mars today, and　the amount of water vapor in the Martian atmosphere is tiny. Yet even setting aside the unproven　hints of ancient oceans, the extent of the outflow channels suggests that a huge total volume of　water existed on Mars in the past. Where did all the water go? The answer may be that virtually all　the water on Mars is now locked in the permafrost layer under the surface, with more contained in　the planet’s polar caps.

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